Neurotoxin models and treatments of Parkinson’s disease
A review
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a prevalent neurological illness that manifests itself sporadically. The destruction of dopaminergic neuronal cells in the substantia nigra is the primary cause of PD. The cause of PD is unknown, while its pathogenesis is becoming to be recognized as a complex cascade of harmful elements. The majority of insights regarding PD pathogenesis reported evidence of experimental PD models, particularly those caused by neurotoxins. Although many natural and synthetic chemicals have negative effects on neuronal cells of the dopaminergic region, only a few are employed in living animal studies to mimic some of the symptoms of PD. Therefore, more studies are required to better understand the causes of PD and select better neurotoxin models in animals. In this review, we discussed the treatment drugs and animal induced model (neurotoxin model) including MPTP, rotenone,6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), manganese, and paraquat for Parkinson’s disease. We also discussed the neuropathological disease stages and telemedicine current status for PD.
Downloads
References
Adams, D. R., and F. Wilkinson. 1972. “Lifetime of Singlet Oxygen in Liquid Solution.” Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 2: Molecular and Chemical Physics 68(0): 586–93.
Anderson, Timothy et al. 2021. “Paraquat Inhalation, a Translationally Relevant Route of Exposure: Disposition to the Brain and Male-Specific Olfactory Impairment in Mice.” Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology 180(1): 175–85.
Aswath, S, and K R Vignesh. 2019. “Epidemiology of Parkinson ‘ s Disease in Africa Epidemiology of Parkinson ‘ s Disease in Africa.” Lancet Neurology 5(September): 525–35.
Beleslin, D. B., Ranka Samardžić, and Ksenija Stefanović-Denić. 1981. “6-Hydroxydopamine and Aggression in Cats.” Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior 14 Suppl 1: 29–32.
Betarbet, R. et al. 2000. “Chronic Systemic Pesticide Exposure Reproduces Features of Parkinson’s Disease.” Nature Neuroscience 3(12): 1301–6.
Bisbal, Mariano, and Mónica Sanchez. 2019. “Neurotoxicity of the Pesticide Rotenone on Neuronal Polarization: A Mechanistic Approach.” Neural Regeneration Research 14(5): 762–66.
Blesa, Javier, Sudarshan Phani, Vernice Jackson-Lewis, and Serge Przedborski. 2012. “Classic and New Animal Models of Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2012.
Blum, David et al. 2001. “Molecular Pathways Involved in the Neurotoxicity of 6-OHDA, Dopamine and MPTP: Contribution to the Apoptotic Theory in Parkinson’s Disease.” Progress in Neurobiology 65(2): 135–72.
Bonito-Oliva, Alessandra, Débora Masini, and Gilberto Fisone. 2014. “A Mouse Model of Non-Motor Symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease: Focus on Pharmacological Interventions Targeting Affective Dysfunctions.” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 8(AUG): 290.
Braak, Heiko, and Eva Braak. 2000. “Pathoanatomy of Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of Neurology, Supplement 247(2): 3–10.
Burk, R. F., R. A. Lawrence, and J. M. Lane. 1980. “Liver Necrosis and Lipid Peroxidation in the Rat as the Result of Paraquat and Diquat Administration. Effect of Selenium Deficiency.” Journal of Clinical Investigation 65(5): 1024–31.
Cadet, Jean Lud, and Christie Brannock. 1997. “Free Radicals and the Pathobiology of Brain Dopamine Systems.” Neurochemistry International 32(2): 117–31.
Cadet, Jean Lud, Mindy Katz, Vernice Jackson-Lewis, and Stanley Fahn. 1989. “Vitamin E Attenuates the Toxic Effects of Intrastriatal Injection of 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in Rats: Behavioral and Biochemical Evidence.” Brain Research 476(1): 10–15.
Callio, Jason, Tim D. Oury, and Charleen T. Chu. 2005. “Manganese Superoxide Dismutase Protects against 6-Hydroxydopamine Injury in Mouse Brains.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(18): 18536–42.
Chan-Palay, V. 1988. “Galanin Hyperinnervates Surviving Neurons of the Human Basal Nucleus of Meynert in Dementias of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease: A Hypothesis for the Role of Galanin in Accentuating Cholinergic Dysfunction in Dementia.” Journal of Comparative Neurology 273(4): 543–57.
Chan, Piu et al. 1991. “Rapid ATP Loss Caused by 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine in Mouse Brain.” Journal of Neurochemistry 57(1): 348–51.
Charvin, Delphine, Rossella Medori, Robert A. Hauser, and Olivier Rascol. 2018. “Therapeutic Strategies for Parkinson Disease: Beyond Dopaminergic Drugs.” Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 17(11): 804–22.
Chen, Qing et al. 2010. “The Toxic Influence of Paraquat on Hippocampus of Mice: Involvement of Oxidative Stress.” Neurotoxicology 31(3): 310–16.
Chepukosi, Kennedy W. et al. 2021. “Manganese Exacerbated Chronic Khat-Induced Neurological Deficits, Inflammation and Organ Toxicity in a Mouse Model.” Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences 13(4): 337–50.
Chiba, Kan, Anthony Trevor, and Neal Castagnoli. 1984. “Metabolism of the Neurotoxic Tertiary Amine, MPTP, by Brain Monoamine Oxidase.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 120(2): 574–78.
Clarke, C. E., and M. Guttman. 2002. “Dopamine Agonist Monotherapy in Parkinson’s Disease.” Lancet 360(9347): 1767–69.
Cohen, G. 1984. “Oxy-Radical Toxicity in Catecholamine Neurons.” NeuroToxicology 5(1): 77–82.
Davey, Gavin P., Stefan Peuchen, and John B. Clark. 1998. “Energy Thresholds in Brain Mitochondria: Potential Involvement in Neurodegeneration.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 273(21): 12753–57.
Davis, Glenn C. et al. 1979. “Chronic Parkinsonism Secondary to Intravenous Injection of Meperidine Analogues.” Psychiatry Research 1(3): 249–54.
Demiya-Dillenburger, Sven, Masaaki Isshiki, and Jörg Mahlich. 2022. “Telemedicine in Japan: Challenges and Opportunities.” : 85–95. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-94025-6_8 (May 15, 2022).
Dick, Finlay D. 2006. “Parkinson’s Disease and Pesticide Exposures.” British Medical Bulletin 79–80(1): 219–31.
Eddleston, Michael. 2017. “Paraquat and Diquat.” Critical Care Toxicology: Diagnosis and Management of the Critically Poisoned Patient: 1855–74.
Ehrt, Uwe et al. 2010. “Use of Drugs with Anticholinergic Effect and Impact on Cognition in Parkinson’s Disease: A Cohort Study.” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 81(2): 160–65.
Esper, Christine D., and Stewart A. Factor. 2008. “Failure of Recognition of Drug-Induced Parkinsonism in the Elderly.” Movement Disorders 23(3): 401–4.
Glinka, Y., K. F. Tipton, and M. B.H. Youdim. 1996. “Nature of Inhibition of Mitochondrial Respiratory Complex I by 6-Hydroxydopamine.” Journal of Neurochemistry 66(5): 2004–10.
Glinka, Yelena Y., and Moussa B.H. Youdim. 1995. “Inhibition of Mitochondrial Complexes I and IV by 6-Hydroxydopamine.” European Journal of Pharmacology: Environmental Toxicology and 292(3–4): 329–32.
GRANT, HELEN C., P. L. LANTOS, and CONSTANCE PARKINSON. 1980. “Cerebral Damage in Paraquat Poisoning.” Histopathology 4(2): 185–95.
Haleagrahara, Nagaraja, Cheng Jun Siew, and Kumar Ponnusamy. 2013. “Effect of Quercetin and Desferrioxamine on 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) Induced Neurotoxicity in Striatum of Rats.” Journal of Toxicological Sciences 38(1): 25–33.
Harischandra, Dilshan S. et al. 2019. “Manganese-Induced Neurotoxicity: New Insights into the Triad of Protein Misfolding, Mitochondrial Impairment, and Neuroinflammation.” Frontiers in Neuroscience 13(JUN): 654.
Hatcher, Jaime M., Kurt D. Pennell, and Gary W. Miller. 2008. “Parkinson’s Disease and Pesticides: A Toxicological Perspective.” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 29(6): 322–29.
Heikkila, Richard E., William J. Nicklas, Ivy Vyas, and Roger C. Duvoisin. 1985. “Dopaminergic Toxicity of Rotenone and the 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridinium Ion after Their Stereotaxic Administration to Rats: Implication for the Mechanism of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine Toxicity.” Neuroscience Letters 62(3): 389–94.
Hernandez-Baltazar, D., L.M. Zavala-Flores, and A. Villanueva-Olivo. 2017. “The 6-Hydroxydopamine Model and Parkinsonian Pathophysiology: Novel Findings in an Older Model.” Neurología (English Edition) 32(8): 533–39.
Hernando, Sara et al. 2016. “Advances in Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases.” Nanomedicine 11(10): 1267–85.
Hyeon, Yeong Kim et al. 2009. “Effects of Manganese Exposure on Dopamine and Prolactin Production in Rat.” Neuroreport 20(1): 69–73.
Inden, Masatoshi et al. 2011. “Parkinsonian Rotenone Mouse Model: Reevaluation of Long-Term Administration of Rotenone in C57BL/6 Mice.” Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 34(1): 92–96.
Irwin, I., L. E. DeLanney, and J. W. Langston. 1993. “MPTP and Aging. Studies in the C57BL/6 Mouse.” Advances in neurology 60: 197–206.
Jackson-Lewis, Vernice, Michael Jakowec, Robert E. Burke, and Serge Przedborski. 1995. “Time Course and Morphology of Dopaminergic Neuronal Death Caused by the Neurotoxin 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine.” Neurodegeneration 4(3): 257–69.
Jiménez-Delgado, Alicia et al. 2021. “Effect of Melatonin Administration on Mitochondrial Activity and Oxidative Stress Markers in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease.” Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2021.
Keele, B. B., J. M. McCord, and I. Fridovich. 1971. “Further Characterization of Bovine Superoxide Dismutase and Its Isolation from Bovine Heart.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 246(9): 2875–80.
Kish, Stephen J., Kathleen Shannak, and Oleh Hornykiewicz. 1988. “Uneven Pattern of Dopamine Loss in the Striatum of Patients with Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease.” New England Journal of Medicine 318(14): 876–80.
Klinkenberg, Inge et al. 2020. “Are Thymol, Rosefuran, Terpinolene and Umbelliferone Good Scavengers of Peroxyl Radicals?” eds. G. Balint et al. Life Sciences 10(1): 1–14. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21771414/(March 11, 2021).
Kordower, Jeffrey H. et al. 2013. “Disease Duration and the Integrity of the Nigrostriatal System in Parkinson’s Disease.” Brain 136(8): 2419–31.
Lau, Y. S. et al. 1991. “Depletion of Striatal Dopamine by the N-Oxide of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl- 1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine (MPTP).” NeuroToxicology 12(2): 189–200.
Liou, Horng Huei et al. 1996. “Effects of Paraquat on the Substantia Nigra of the Wistar Rats: Neurochemical, Histological, and Behavioral Studies.” Toxicology and applied pharmacology 137(1): 34–41.
Liss, Birgit et al. 2005. “K-ATP Channels Promote the Differential Degeneration of Dopaminergic Midbrain Neurons.” Nature Neuroscience 8(12): 1742–51.
Luthman, Johan, Martina Bassen, Anders Fredriksson, and Trevor Archer. 1997. “Functional Changes Induced by Neonatal Cerebral 6-Hydroxydopamine Treatment: Effects of Dose Levels on Behavioral Parameters.” Behavioural Brain Research 82(2): 213–21.
Maliyakkal, Naseer et al. 2022. “Ameliorative Effect of Ethoxylated Chalcone-Based MAO-B Inhibitor on Behavioural Predictors of Haloperidol-Induced Parkinsonism in Mice: Evidence of Its Antioxidative Role against Parkinson’s Diseases.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29(5): 7271–82.
Manning-Bog, Amy B. et al. 2002. “The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-Regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice: Paraquat and α-Synuclein.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 277(3): 1641–44.
Marti-Massó, J. F., J. J. Poza, and A. Lopez De Munain. 1996. “Drugs Inducing or Aggravating Parkinsonism: A Review.” Therapie 51(5): 568–77.
McCormack, Alison L. et al. 2002. “Environmental Risk Factors and Parkinson’s Disease: Selective Degeneration of Nigral Dopaminergic Neurons Caused by the Herbicide Paraquat.” Neurobiology of Disease 10(2): 119–27.
Meredith, Gloria E., and David J. Rademacher. 2011. “MPTP Mouse Models of Parkinson’s Disease: An Update.” Journal of Parkinson’s Disease 1(1): 19–33.
Mirzaei, Hamed et al. 2021. “Probiotics and the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease: An Update.” Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.
Montastruc, JL, ME Llau, O. Rascol, and JM Senard. 1994. “Drug-induced Parkinsonism: A Review.” Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology 8(4): 293–306.
Di Monte, Donato et al. 1987. “Role of 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridinium Ion Formation and Accumulation in 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine Toxicity to Isolated Hepatocytes.” Chemico-Biological Interactions 62(2): 105–16.
Di Monte, Donato, Martha S. Sandy, Gunilla Ekström, and Martyn T. Smith. 1986. “Comparative Studies on the Mechanisms of Paraquat and 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridine (MPP+) Cytotoxicity.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 137(1): 303–9.
Móran, José M. et al. 2008. “Identification of Genes Associated with Paraquat-Induced Toxicity in SH-SY5Y Cells by PCR Array Focused on Apoptotic Pathways.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part A: Current Issues 71(22): 1457–67.
Mounayar, Stéphanie et al. 2007. “A New Model to Study Compensatory Mechanisms in MPTP-Treated Monkeys Exhibiting Recovery.” Brain 130(11): 2898–2914.
Nicklas, Willia m.dot J., Ivy Vyas, and Richard E. Heikkila. 1985. “Inhibition of NADH-Linked Oxidation in Brain Mitochondria by 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-Pyridine, a Metabolite of the Neurotoxin, 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,5,6-Tetrahydropyridine.” Life Sciences 36(26): 2503–8.
Ogawa, Mayuko et al. 2022. “Current Status of Telemedicine for Parkinson’s Disease in Japan: A Single-Center Cross-Sectional Questionnaire Survey.” Journal of Movement Disorders 15(1): 58–61.
Okada, Monica Akemi et al. 2016. “Brain Effects of Manganese Exposure in Mice Pups during Prenatal and Breastfeeding Periods.” Neurochemistry international 97: 109–16.
Oluwole, Oluwafemi G. et al. 2019. “Parkinson’s Disease in Nigeria: A Review of Published Studies and Recommendations for Future Research.” Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 62: 36–43.
Omboni, Stefano et al. 2022. “The Worldwide Impact of Telemedicine during COVID-19: Current Evidence and Recommendations for the Future.” Connected Health 1(1): 7–35. https://chjournal.net/article/view/4493 (May 15, 2022).
Padiglia, Alessandra et al. 1997. “Modulation of 6-Hydroxydopamine Oxidation by Various Proteins.” Biochemical Pharmacology 53(8): 1065–68.
Patel, Manisha et al. 1996. “Requirement for Superoxide in Excitotoxic Cell Death.” Neuron 16(2): 345–55.
Peng, Jun et al. 2004. “The Herbicide Paraquat Induces Dopaminergic Nigral Apoptosis through Sustained Activation of the JNK Pathway.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 279(31): 32626–32.
Perese, D. A. et al. 1989. “A 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Selective Parkinsonian Rat Model.” Brain Research 494(2): 285–93.
Prasad, E. Maruthi, and Shih Ya Hung. 2020. “Behavioral Tests in Neurotoxin-Induced Animal Models of Parkinson’s Disease.” Antioxidants 2020, Vol. 9, Page 1007 9(10): 1007. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/9/10/1007/htm (May 8, 2022).
Przedborski, Serge, and Miquel Vila. 2001. “MPTP: A Review of Its Mechanisms of Neurotoxicity.” Clinical Neuroscience Research 1(6): 407–18.
Ramsay, Rona R., Jahan Dadgar, Anthony Trevor, and Thomas P. Singer. 1986. “Energy-Driven Uptake of N-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridine by Brain Mitochondria Mediates the Neurotoxicity of MPTP.” Life Sciences 39(7): 581–88.
Röper, Jochen, and Frances M. Ashcroft. 1995. “Metabolic Inhibition and Low Internal ATP Activate K-ATP Channels in Rat Dopaminergic Substantia Nigra Neurones.” Pflügers Archiv European Journal of Physiology 430(1): 44–54.
Salach, James I., Thomas P. Singer, Neal Castagnoli, and Anthony Trevor. 1984. “Oxidation of the Neurotoxic Amine 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) by Monoamine Oxidases A and B and Suicide Inactivation of the Enzymes by MPTP.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 125(2): 831–35.
Salokhiddinov, K. I., I. M. Byteva, and G. P. Gurinovich. 1981. “Lifetime of Singlet Oxygen in Various Solvents.” Journal of Applied Spectroscopy 34(5): 561–64.
Sayre, Lawrence M., Fengjiang Wang, and Charles L. Hoppel. 1989. “Tetraphenylborate Potentiates the Respiratory Inhibition by the Dopaminergic Neurotoxin MPP+ in Both Electron Transport Particles and Intact Mitochondria.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 161(2): 809–18.
Seo, Byoung Boo et al. 2000. “Use of the NADH-Quinone Oxidoreductase (NDI1) Gene of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae as a Possible Cure for Complex I Defects in Human Cells.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 275(48): 37774–78.
———. 2002. “A Single-Subunit NADH-Quinone Oxidoreductase Renders Resistance to Mammalian Nerve Cells against Complex I Inhibition.” Molecular Therapy 6(3): 336–41.
Sherer, Todd B. et al. 2003. “Mechanism of Toxicity in Rotenone Models of Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of Neuroscience 23(34): 10756–64.
Shin, Hae Won, and Sun Ju Chung. 2012. “Drug-Induced Parkinsonism.” Journal of Clinical Neurology (Korea) 8(1): 15–21.
Shukla, Arvind Kumar et al. 2014. “Heat Shock Protein-70 (Hsp-70) Suppresses Paraquat-Induced Neurodegeneration by Inhibiting JNK and Caspase-3 Activation in Drosophila Model of Parkinson’s Disease.” PLOS ONE 9(6): e98886. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0098886 (May 7, 2022).
Simola, Nicola, Micaela Morelli, and Anna R. Carta. 2007. “The 6-Hydroxydopamine Model of Parkinson’s Disease.” Neurotoxicity Research 11(3–4): 151–67.
Simon, David K., Caroline M. Tanner, and Patrik Brundin. 2020. “Zigmond MJ. Chemical Transmission in the Brain: Homeostatic Regulation and Its Functional Implications. Prog Brain Res 1994; 100:115–122.” Clinics in geriatric medicine 36(1): 1–12.
Singer, T. P., J. I. Salach, N. Castagnoli, and A. Trevor. 1986. “Interactions of the Neurotoxic Amine 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine with Monoamine Oxidases.” Biochemical Journal 235(3): 785–89.
Singer, Thomas P., Neal Castagnoli, Rona R. Ramsay, and Anthony J. Trevor. 1987. “Biochemical Events in the Development of Parkinsonism Induced by 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine.” Journal of Neurochemistry 49(1): 1–8.
Singh, Neha, Viness Pillay, and Yahya E. Choonara. 2007. “Advances in the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease.” Progress in Neurobiology 81(1): 29–44.
Somayajulu-Niţu, Mallika et al. 2009. “Paraquat Induces Oxidative Stress, Neuronal Loss in Substantia Nigra Region and Parkinsonism in Adult Rats: Neuroprotection and Amelioration of Symptoms by Water-Soluble Formulation of Coenzyme Q10.” BMC Neuroscience 10: 88.
Storch, Alexander, Anne Kaftan, Katrin Burkhardt, and Johannes Schwarz. 2000. “1-Methyl-6,7-Dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroisoquinoline (Salsolinol) Is Toxic to Dopaminergic Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells via Impairment of Cellular Energy Metabolism.” Brain Research 855(1): 67–75.
Stowe, Rebecca L. et al. 2008. “Dopamine Agonist Therapy in Early Parkinson’s Disease.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2).
Sukendar, Komang Agus, Sri Sutarni, and Subagya. 2016. “Pathophysiology of Parkinson’S Disease Resting Tremor.” Berkala Ilmiah Kedokteran Duta Wacana 1(3): 209–18. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://bikdw.ukdw.ac.id/index.php/bikdw/article/download/23/24&ved=2ahUKEwii5bugw9HuAhV5q0sFHS5ZCUg4ChAWMAJ6BAgHEAE&usg=AOvVaw2tJYSbuBFVQnjoOzW12MBp.
Sun, Yuyang, Pramod Sukumaran, and Brij B. Singh. 2020. “Magnesium-Induced Cell Survival Is Dependent on TRPM7 Expression and Function.” Molecular Neurobiology 57(1): 528–38.
Sveinbjornsdottir, Sigurlaug. 2016. “The Clinical Symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of Neurochemistry 139: 318–24.
Talpade, Deepa J., James G. Greene, Donald S. Higgins, and J. Timothy Greenamyre. 2000. “In Vivo Labeling of Mitochondrial Complex I (NADH:Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase) in Rat Brain Using [3H]Dihydrorotenone.” Journal of Neurochemistry 75(6): 2611–21.
Tamtaji, Omid Reza et al. 2020. “Melatonin and Parkinson Disease: Current Status and Future Perspectives for Molecular Mechanisms.” Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 40(1): 15–23.
Tatton, N. A., and S. J. Kish. 1997. “In Situ Detection of Apoptotic Nuclei in the Substantia Nigra Compacta of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine-Treated Mice Using Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase Labelling and Acridine Orange Staining.” Neuroscience 77(4): 1037–48.
Thiruchelvam, Mona et al. 2000. “The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of Neuroscience 20(24): 9207–14.
Ungerstedt, U., T. Ljungberg, and G. Steg. 1974. “Behavioral, Physiological, and Neurochemical Changes after 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Degeneration of the Nigro-Striatal Dopamine Neurons.” Advances in neurology 5: 421–26.
Kumar, S. (2022). A quest for sustainium (sustainability Premium): review of sustainable bonds. Academy of Accounting and Financial Studies Journal, Vol. 26, no.2, pp. 1-18
Allugunti, V.R. (2019). Diabetes Kaggle Dataset Adequacy Scrutiny using Factor Exploration and Correlation. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, Volume-8, Issue-1S4, pp 1105-1110.
Viswanatha KKRC, Reddy A, Elango N M (2019). Diabetes Kaggle Dataset Adequacy Scrutiny using Factor Exploration and Correlation, International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) Vol. 8.
Ungerstedt, Urban. 1968. “6-Hydroxy-Dopamine Induced Degeneration of Central Monoamine Neurons.” European Journal of Pharmacology 5(1): 107–10.
Uversky, Vladimir N. 2004. “Neurotoxicant-Induced Animal Models of Parkinson’s Disease: Understanding the Role of Rotenone, Maneb and Paraquat in Neurodegeneration.” Cell and Tissue Research 318(1): 225–41.
Vegh, Caleb et al. 2021. “Combined Ubisol-Q10 and Ashwagandha Root Extract Target Multiple Biochemical Mechanisms and Reduces Neurodegeneration in a Paraquat-Induced Rat Model of Parkinson’s Disease.” Antioxidants 2021, Vol. 10, Page 563 10(4): 563.
Vila, M., D. C. Wu, and S. Przedborski. 2001. “Engineered Modeling and the Secrets of Parkinson’s Disease.” Trends in Neurosciences 24(11): S49–55. http://www.cell.com/article/S0166223600019846/fulltext (May 7, 2022).
Waters, Cheryl. 2000. “Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Inhibitors in Parkinson’s Disease.” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 48(6): 692–98.
Whitehouse, Peter J., John C. Hedreen, Charles L. White, and Donald L. Price. 1983. “Basal Forebrain Neurons in the Dementia of Parkinson Disease.” Annals of Neurology 13(3): 243–48.
William Langston, J., Philip Ballard, James W. Tetrud, and Ian Irwin. 1983a. “Chronic Parkinsonism in Humans Due to a Product of Meperidine-Analog Synthesis.” Science 219(4587): 979–80.
———. 1983b. “Chronic Parkinsonism in Humans Due to a Product of Meperidine-Analog Synthesis.” Science 219(4587): 979–80.
Wrangel, Christof von et al. 2015. “The Rotenone-Induced Rat Model of Parkinson’s Disease: Behavioral and Electrophysiological Findings.” Behavioural brain research 279: 52–61.
Wu, Jie et al. 2006. “Iptakalim Modulates ATP-Sensitive K+ Channels in Dopamine Neurons from Rat Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta.” Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 319(1): 155–64.
Wu, Yan Na, and Steven W. Johnson. 2009. “Rotenone Reduces Mg2+-Dependent Block of NMDA Currents in Substantia Nigra Dopamine Neurons.” NeuroToxicology 30(2): 320–25.
Wu, Ying et al. 1996. “Unlike MPP+, Apoptosis Induced by 6-OHDA in PC12 Cells Is Independent of Mitochondrial Inhibition.” Neuroscience Letters 221(1): 69–71.
Xue, Jinsong, Hui Li Wang, and Guiran Xiao. 2020. “Transferrin1 Modulates Rotenone-Induced Parkinson’s Disease through Affecting Iron Homeostasis in Drosophila Melanogaster.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 531(3): 305–11.
Yan, Dandan et al. 2018. “Pesticide Exposure and Risk of Parkinson’s Disease: Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.” Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 96: 57–63.
Yazdani, U. et al. 2006. “Rat Model of Parkinson’s Disease: Chronic Central Delivery of 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridinium (MPP+).” Experimental Neurology 200(1): 172–83.
Zhao, Yuwen et al. 2020. “The Role of Genetics in Parkinson’s Disease: A Large Cohort Study in Chinese Mainland Population.” Brain 143(7): 2220–34.
Zigmond, Michael J. 1994. “Chemical Transmission in the Brain: Homeostatic Regulation and Its Functional Implications.” Progress in Brain Research 100(C): 115–22.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2022 International journal of health sciences
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/4.0/88x31.png)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Articles published in the International Journal of Health Sciences (IJHS) are available under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). Authors retain copyright in their work and grant IJHS right of first publication under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Users have the right to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles in this journal, and to use them for any other lawful purpose.
Articles published in IJHS can be copied, communicated and shared in their published form for non-commercial purposes provided full attribution is given to the author and the journal. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
This copyright notice applies to articles published in IJHS volumes 4 onwards. Please read about the copyright notices for previous volumes under Journal History.